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Family Investments in Children's Potential: Resources and Parenting Behaviors That Promote Success

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Process of raising a child

A male parent holds his child.

Parenting or child rearing promotes and supports the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to machismo. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a kid and not exclusively for a biological relationship.[1]

The most common caretaker in parenting is the begetter or mother, or both, the biological parents of the child in question. However, a surrogate may be an older sibling, a step-parent, a grandparent, a legal guardian, aunt, uncle, other family members, or a family friend.[2] Governments and society may besides have a function in child-rearing. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent or non-blood relations. Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent or surrogate with good parenting skills may exist referred to equally a good parent.[3]

Parenting styles vary by historical catamenia, race/ethnicity, social class, preference, and a few other social features.[4] Additionally, enquiry supports that parental history, both in terms of attachments of varying quality and parental psychopathology, particularly in the wake of adverse experiences, can strongly influence parental sensitivity and child outcomes.[5] [six] [7]

Factors that bear on decisions [edit]

Social class, wealth, culture and income take a very strong impact on what methods of child rearing parents use.[8] Cultural values play a major role in how a parent raises their child. However, parenting is e'er evolving, equally times, cultural practices, social norms, and traditions modify. Studies on these factors affecting parenting decisions have shown merely that.[9] [10]

In psychology, the parental investment theory suggests that basic differences betwixt males and females in parental investment have dandy adaptive significance and lead to gender differences in mating propensities and preferences.[11]

A family's social grade plays a large role in the opportunities and resource that will be available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, and level of parental attention bachelor compared to those from the centre-grade or upper-class.[12] Also, lower working-class families exercise non get the kind of networking that the heart and upper classes practice through helpful family members, friends, and customs individuals or groups besides as various professionals or experts.[xiii]

Styles [edit]

A parenting manner is indicative of the overall emotional climate in the home.[14] Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early on child development: administrative, authoritarian, and permissive.[15] [sixteen] [17] [eighteen] [ excessive citations ] These parenting styles were later expanded to four to include an uninvolved style. These four styles involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness, and too involve demand and command.[19] Research[20] has establish that parenting way is significantly related to a child's subsequent mental health and well-being. In particular, authoritative parenting is positively related to mental wellness and satisfaction with life, and authoritarian parenting is negatively related to these variables.[21] With authoritarian and permissive parenting on opposite sides of the spectrum, most conventional modern models of parenting autumn somewhere in between.

Authoritative parenting
Described by Baumrind equally the "just correct" style, it combines medium level demands on the child and a medium level responsiveness from the parents. Authoritative parents rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent employ of punishment. Parents are more aware of a child'south feelings and capabilities and support the development of a kid's autonomy inside reasonable limits. There is a word temper involved in parent-kid advice, and both control and support are balanced. Some research[ vague ]has shown that this style of parenting is more beneficial than the as well-hard authoritarian style or the too-soft permissive style.[22] This parenting style results from successful, and happy children. When practiced without physical punishment, one gets the most favorable results with the least issues in today'due south world. These children score college in terms of competence, mental health, and social development than those raised in permissive, authoritarian, or neglectful homes.[23]
Authoritarian parenting styles
Authoritarian parents are very rigid and strict. Loftier demands are placed on the child, just there is little responsiveness to them. Parents who practice authoritarian-style parenting have a non-negotiable set of rules and expectations strictly enforced and require rigid obedience. When the rules are not followed, punishment is oftentimes used to promote and ensure futurity compliance.[24] There is unremarkably no explanation of penalty except that the kid is in trouble for breaking a dominion.[24] This parenting manner is strongly associated with corporal penalty, such as spanking. A typical response to a child'south question of authority would be, "because I said then." This type of parenting seems to be seen more often in working-course families than in the middle form.[25] [26] In 1983, Diana Baumrind institute that children raised in an authoritarian-way home were less cheerful, moodier, and more vulnerable to stress. In many cases, these children also demonstrated passive hostility. This parenting way tin can negatively impact the educational success and career path, while a firm and reassuring parenting style affect positively.[27]
Permissive parenting
Permissive parenting has become a more popular parenting method for middle-course families than working-form families roughly since the end of WWII.[28] In these settings, a child'due south freedom and autonomy are highly valued, and parents rely primarily on reasoning and explanation. Parents are undemanding, and thus in that location tends to be little if any penalty or explicit rules in this parenting style. These parents say that their children are complimentary from external constraints and tend to be highly responsive to whatever information technology is that the child wants. Children of permissive parents are generally happy simply sometimes show low levels of self-command and cocky-reliance because they lack structure at habitation.[29]
Uninvolved parenting
An uninvolved or neglectful parenting style is when parents are often emotionally or physically absent.[30] They have trivial to no expectations from the kid and regularly accept no communication. They are non responsive to a child'due south needs and have little to no behavioral expectations. If present, they may provide what the child needs for survival with little to no engagement.[thirty] There is oft a big gap betwixt parents and children with this parenting style.[ vague ] Children with little or no advice with their own parents tend to exist victimized by other children and may showroom deviant behavior themselves.[31] Children of uninvolved parents suffer in social competence, academic performance, psychosocial evolution, and problematic behavior.

Practices [edit]

A parenting practice is a specific beliefs that a parent uses in raising a child.[xiv] For example, many parents read aloud to their offspring in the hopes of supporting their linguistic and intellectual development. In cultures with strong oral traditions, such equally Indigenous American communities, storytelling is a disquisitional parenting practice for children.[32]

Parenting practices reflect the cultural understanding of children.[33] Parents in individualistic countries like Frg spend more than time engaged in contiguous interaction with babies and more time talking to the baby almost the infant. Parents in more communal cultures, such as West African cultures, spend more than time talking to the infant about other people and more than time with the baby facing outwards then that the baby sees what the female parent sees.[33]

Skills and Behaviors [edit]

Parenting skills and behaviors assist parents in leading children into salubrious adulthood and development of the child'south social skills. The cognitive potential, social skills, and behavioral functioning a child acquires during the early years are positively correlated with the quality of their interactions with their parents.[34]

According to the Canadian Council on Learning, children do good (or avoid poor developmental outcomes) when their parents:

  1. Communicate truthfully about events: Actuality from parents who explain tin aid their children understand what happened and how they are involved;
  2. Maintain consistency: Parents that regularly institute routines can see benefits in their children'due south behavioral patterns;
  3. Utilize resources bachelor to them, reaching out into the community and building a supportive social network;
  4. Take an interest in their child's educational and early on developmental needs (e.yard., Play that enhances socialization, autonomy, cohesion, calmness, and trust.); and
  5. Keep open communication lines nearly what their child is seeing, learning, and doing, and how those things are affecting them.[ citation needed ]

Parenting skills are widely thought to be naturally present in parents; yet, there is substantial evidence to the contrary. Those who come from a negative or vulnerable babyhood environment frequently (and ofttimes unintentionally) mimic their parents' beliefs during interactions with their own children. Parents with an inadequate understanding of developmental milestones may also demonstrate problematic parenting. Parenting practices are of item importance during marital transitions like separation, divorce, and remarriage;[35] if children neglect to adequately arrange to these changes, they are at risk of negative outcomes (eastward.g. increased dominion-breaking behavior, problems with peer relationships, and increased emotional difficulties).[36]

Research classifies competence and skills required in parenting equally follows:[37]

  • Parent-child relationship skills: quality time spent, positive communications, and delighted show of affection.
  • Encouraging desirable behavior: praise and encouragement, nonverbal attending, facilitating engaging activities.
  • Education skills and behaviors: being a practiced example, incidental teaching, human being communication of the skill with part-playing and other methods, communicating logical incentives and consequences.
  • Managing misbehavior: establishing business firm ground rules and limits, directing discussion, providing articulate and at-home instructions, communicating and enforcing advisable consequences, using restrictive tactics similar quiet time and time out with an administrative stance rather than an authoritarian i.
  • Anticipating and planning: avant-garde planning and preparation for readying the child for challenges, finding out engaging and age-appropriate developmental activities, preparing the token economy for self-direction practice with guidance, holding follow-upward discussions, identifying possible negative developmental trajectories.
  • Self-regulation skills: monitoring behaviors (ain and children's),[38] setting developmentally appropriate goals, evaluating strengths and weaknesses and setting practice tasks, monitoring and preventing internalizing and externalizing behaviors.
  • Mood and coping skills: reframing and discouraging unhelpful thoughts (diversions, goal orientation, and mindfulness), stress and tension direction (own and children's), developing personal coping statements and plans for loftier-risk situations, building mutual respect and consideration between members of the family through collaborative activities and rituals.
  • Partner back up skills: improving personal communication, giving and receiving constructive feedback and support, avoiding negative family interaction styles, supporting and finding hope in problems for adaptation, leading collaborative problem solving, promoting relationship happiness and cordiality.

Consistency is considered the "backbone" of positive parenting skills and "overprotection" the weakness.[39]

Parent training [edit]

Parent psychosocial health tin can have a significant affect on the parent-child relationship. Group-based parent training and pedagogy programs have proven to exist effective at improving brusque-term psychosocial well-beingness for parents.At that place are many different types of training parents can take to back up their parenting skills. Courses are offered to families based on effective training to support additional needs, behavioral guidelines, communication and many others to requite guidance throughout learning how to be a parent.[40]

Cultural values [edit]

Parents effectually the world want what they believe is best for their children. However, parents in different cultures have different ideas of what is best.[41] For example, parents in hunter–gatherer societies or those who survive through subsistence agriculture are probable to promote practical survival skills from a young historic period. Many such cultures begin education children to use sharp tools, including knives, earlier their offset birthdays.[42] In some Indigenous American communities, child work provides children the opportunity to absorb cultural values of collaborative participation and prosocial behavior through observation and activity alongside adults.[43] These communities value respect, participation, and non-interference, the Cherokee principle of respecting autonomy by withholding unsolicited communication.[44] Indigenous American parents also try to encourage curiosity in their children via a permissive parenting way that enables them to explore and learn through observation of the globe.[45]

Differences in cultural values cause parents to interpret the same behaviors in dissimilar ways.[41] For instance, European Americans prize intellectual understanding, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense, and believe that asking questions is a sign of intelligence. Italian parents value social and emotional competence and believe that curiosity demonstrates good interpersonal skills.[41] Dutch parents, however, value independence, long attention spans, and predictability; in their eyes, asking questions is a negative behavior, signifying a lack of independence.[41]

However, parents around the earth share specific prosocial behavioral goals for their children. Hispanic parents value respect and emphasize putting family above the individual. Parents in Due east Asia prize order in the household above all else. In some cases, this gives ascent to high levels of psychological control and even manipulation on the role of the head of the household.[46] The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are innovative and wield that intelligence responsibly and helpfully—a behavior they call ng/om.[41] Other cultures, such equally Sweden and Kingdom of spain, value sociable and happiness too.[41]

Indigenous American cultures [edit]

Baby on dorsum in Lima, Peru

It is common for parents in many Indigenous American communities to use dissimilar parenting tools such every bit storytelling —like myths— Consejos (Spanish for "communication"), educational teasing, nonverbal advice, and observational learning to teach their children important values and life lessons.

Storytelling is a way for Indigenous American children to larn about their identity, community, and cultural history. Indigenous myths and folklore often personify animals and objects, reaffirming the belief that everything possesses a soul and deserves respect. These stories also help preserve the language and are used to reflect certain values or cultural histories.[47]

The Consejo is a narrative course of advice-giving. Rather than directly telling the kid what to do in a particular state of affairs, the parent might instead tell a story about a like situation. The main character in the story is intended to help the child see their determination's implications without direct deciding for them; this teaches the child to be decisive and independent while however providing some guidance.[48]

The playful form of teasing is a parenting method used in some Indigenous American communities to keep children out of danger and guide their behavior. This parenting strategy utilizes stories, fabrications, or empty threats to guide children in making safe, intelligent decisions. For instance, a parent may tell a child that in that location is a monster that jumps on children'south backs if they walk alone at night. This explanation tin assistance keep the child condom because instilling that fearfulness creates greater awareness and lessens the likelihood that they will wander solitary into problem.[49]

In Navajo families, a child's evolution is partly focused on the importance of "respect" for all things. "Respect" consists of recognizing the significance of i's relationship with other things and people in the world. Children largely learn about this concept via nonverbal advice betwixt parents and other family members.[l] For example, children are initiated at an early historic period into the practice of an early morning run under any weather conditions. On this run, the community uses humor and laughter with each other, without direct including the child—who may non wish to get upward early and run—to encourage the child to participate and go an active member of the community.[l] Parents also promote participation in the morning time runs by placing their child in the snowfall and having them stay longer if they protest.[50]

Indians of Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico, making pottery, 1916

Indigenous American parents often incorporate children into everyday life, including developed activities, allowing the child to learn through observation. This practice is known equally LOPI, Learning by Observing and Pitching In, where children are integrated into all types of mature daily activities and encouraged to observe and contribute in the community. This inclusion as a parenting tool promotes both community participation and learning.[51]

Ane notable example appears in some Mayan communities: young girls are non permitted around the hearth for an extended period of fourth dimension, since corn is sacred. Although this is an exception to their cultural preference for incorporating children into activities, including cooking, it is a strong example of observational learning. Mayan girls can just lookout their mothers making tortillas for a few minutes at a time, but the sacredness of the action captures their interest. They volition then become and exercise their mother's movements on other objects, such as kneading thin pieces of plastic like a tortilla. From this practice, when a girl comes of age, she is able to sit down and make tortillas without having ever received any explicit verbal instruction.[52]

[edit]

Due to the increasing racial and indigenous diversity in the United States, ethnic-racial socialization research has gained some attending.[53] Parental indigenous-racial socialization is a mode of passing down cultural resources to back up children of colour's psychosocial wellness.[53] The goals of ethnic-racial socialization are: to pass on a positive view of 1'due south indigenous grouping and to help children cope with racism.[53] Through a meta-analysis of published research on indigenous-racial socialization, ethnic-racial socialization positively affects psychosocial well-being.[53] This meta-analytic review focuses on inquiry relevant to iv indicators of psychosocial skills and how they are influenced by developmental stage, race and ethnicity, research designs, and the differences between parent and child cocky-reports.[53] The dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization that are considered when looking for correlations with psychosocial skills are cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, and egalitarianism.[53]

Indigenous-racial socialization dimensions are defined as follows: cultural socialization is the process of passing down cultural customs, preparation for bias ranges from positive or negative reactions to racism and discrimination, promotion of mistrust weather synergy when dealing with other races, and egalitarianism puts similarities between races first.[53] Psychosocial competencies are divers as follows: cocky-perceptions involve perceived beliefs of academic and social capabilities, interpersonal relationships deal with the quality of relationships, externalizing behaviors bargain with appreciable troublesome behavior, and internalizing beliefs deals with emotional intelligence regulation.[53] The multiple ways these domains and competencies interact show small correlations between ethnic-racial socialization and psychosocial wellness, but this parenting do needs further research.[53]

This meta-assay showed that developmental stages affect how children perceived indigenous-racial socialization.[53] Cultural socialization practices announced to affect children similarly across developmental stages except for preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust which are encouraged for older-aged children.[54] [55] [56] Existing research shows ethnic-racial socialization serves African Americans positively against discrimination.[56] Cross-sectional studies were predicted to have greater issue sizes because correlations are inflated in these kinds of studies.[57] [58] [59] Parental reports of ethnic-racial socialization influence are influenced by "intentions," and so child reports tend to be more accurate.[59]

Amid other conclusions derived from this meta-analysis, cultural socialization and self-perceptions had a small positive correlation. Cultural socialization and promotion of mistrust had a modest negative correlation, and interpersonal relationships positively impacted cultural socialization and training for bias.[53] In regard to developmental stages, ethnic-racial socialization had a small but positive correlation with self-perceptions during childhood and early boyhood.[53] Based on study designs, in that location were no significant differences, significant that cantankerous-sectional studies and longitudinal studies both showed small positive correlations between ethnic-racial socialization and self-perceptions.[53] Reporter differences between parents and children showed positive correlations between ethnic-racial socialization when associated with internalizing beliefs and interpersonal relationships.[53] These two correlations showed a greater effect size with child reports compared to parent reports.[53]

The meta-analysis on previous research shows only correlations, so there is a need for experimental studies that tin show causation amid the different domains and dimensions.[53] Children's beliefs and accommodation to this beliefs may indicate a bidirectional effect that tin as well be addressed by an experimental study.[53] At that place is prove to bear witness that ethnic-racial socialization can help children of color obtain social-emotional skills that can help them navigate through racism and discrimination, just further research needs to exist done to increase the generalizability of existing research.[53]

Across the lifespan [edit]

Pre-pregnancy [edit]

Family planning is the decision-making process surrounding whether or not and when to get parents, including planning, preparing, and gathering resources. Prospective parents may assess (among other matters) whether they accept admission to sufficient financial resources, whether their family situation is stable, and whether they desire to undertake the responsibleness of raising a kid. Worldwide, about 40% of all pregnancies are not planned, and more than 30 million babies are built-in each yr as a result of unplanned pregnancies.[threescore]

Reproductive health and preconception intendance touch pregnancy, reproductive success, and the physical and mental health of both mother and kid. A woman who is underweight, whether due to poverty, eating disorders, or illness, is less probable to take a healthy pregnancy and give nascency to a salubrious infant than a woman who is healthy. Similarly, a adult female who is obese has a college adventure of difficulties, including gestational diabetes.[61] Other health issues, such equally infections and iron-deficiency anemia, can be detected and corrected before conception.

Pregnancy and prenatal parenting [edit]

A pregnant woman floats in the corner of a swimming pool

Pregnant women and their unborn children do good from moderate do, sufficient sleep, and high-quality nutrition.

During pregnancy, the unborn child is affected past many decisions fabricated by the parents, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The wellness, action level, and nutrition bachelor to the mother can affect the child's development earlier birth.[61] Some mothers, especially in relatively wealthy countries, overeat and spend too much time resting. Other mothers, especially if they are poor or abused, may be overworked and may not be able to eat enough, or may not exist able to beget healthful foods with sufficient atomic number 26, vitamins, and protein, for the unborn child to develop properly.

Newborns and infants [edit]

Newborn parenting is where the responsibilities of parenthood begin. A newborn'southward basic needs are food, sleep, comfort, and cleaning, which the parent provides. An babe'south only form of communication is crying, and attentive parents will begin to recognize different types of crying each of which represents unlike needs such equally hunger, discomfort, boredom, or loneliness. Newborns and immature infants require feedings every few hours, which is disruptive to adult sleep cycles. They reply enthusiastically to soft stroking, cuddling, and caressing. Gentle rocking back and forth often calms a crying baby, as do massages and warm baths. Newborns may comfort themselves past sucking their pollex or by using a pacifier. The need to suckle is instinctive and allows newborns to feed. Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding past all major infant health organizations.[63] If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is a common alternative. Other alternatives include feeding breastmilk or formula with a cup, spoon, feeding syringe, or nursing supplement.

The forming of attachments is considered the foundation of the infant's chapters to form and carry relationships throughout life. Attachment is non the same as dear or affection, although they often go together. Attachments develop immediately, and a lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted attachment has the potential to cause severe damage to a child's health and well-beingness. Physically, i may non see symptoms or indications of a disorder, but the kid may be affected emotionally. Studies show that children with secure attachments have the ability to class successful relationships, express themselves on an interpersonal basis, and have college cocky-esteem.[64] Conversely children who have neglectful or emotionally unavailable caregivers tin can showroom behavioral problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder or oppositional defiant disorder.[65] Oppositional-defiant disorder is a pattern of disobedient and rebellious behavior toward authorization figures.

Toddlers [edit]

A painting by Maud Humphrey of a kid at a small table with dolls and toy china

Toddlers are pocket-size children betwixt 12 and 36 months old who are much more than active than infants and become challenged with learning how to do simple tasks past themselves. At this stage, parents are heavily involved in showing the small child how to exercise things rather than but doing things for them; it is normal for the toddler to mimic the parents. Toddlers need help to build their vocabulary, increase their communication skills, and manage their emotions. Toddlers will also brainstorm to understand social etiquette, such as being polite and taking turns.[66]

Toddlers are very curious about the world effectually them and are eager to explore it. They seek greater independence and responsibility and may become frustrated when things do not go the way that they want or wait. Tantrums begin at this phase, which is sometimes referred to as the 'Terrible Twos'.[67] Tantrums are often caused by the kid'southward frustration over the item situation, and are sometimes caused, just because they are not able to communicate properly. Parents of toddlers are expected to help guide and teach the child, constitute basic routines (such as washing easily before meals or brushing teeth before bed), and increase the child's responsibilities. Information technology is likewise normal for toddlers to exist oftentimes frustrated. It is an essential step to their development. They will larn through feel, trial, and fault. This means that they need to experience being frustrated when something does not work for them in order to move on to the next stage. When the toddler is frustrated, they will often misbehave with actions similar screaming, hit or biting. Parents need to be careful when reacting to such behaviors; giving threats or punishments is commonly not helpful and might only brand the situation worse.[68] Research groups led past Daniel Schechter, Alytia Levendosky, and others have shown that parents with histories of maltreatment and violence exposure oftentimes have difficulty helping their toddlers and preschool-age children with the very same emotionally dysregulated behaviors which tin can remind traumatized parents of their agin experiences and associated mental states.[69] [70] [71]

Regarding gender differences in parenting, data from the U.s. in 2014 states that, on an average day, amid adults living in households with children under age six, women spent 1.0 hours providing physical intendance (such as bathing or feeding a child) to household children. Past dissimilarity, men spent 23 minutes providing concrete intendance.[72]

Child [edit]

Younger children get-go to become more independent and begin to build friendships. They are able to reason and can make their own decisions in many hypothetical situations. Young children need constant attending but gradually learn how to deal with boredom and brainstorm to be able to play independently. They savour helping and also feeling useful and capable. Parents tin can assistance their children by encouraging social interactions and modeling proper social behaviors. A large part of learning in the early years comes from existence involved in activities and household duties. Parents who observe their children in play or join with them in child-driven play have the opportunity to glimpse into their children's world, acquire to communicate more effectively with their children, and are given another setting to offer gentle, nurturing guidance.[73] Parents also teach their children health, hygiene, and eating habits through instruction and by example.

Parents are expected to make decisions about their child'southward education. Parenting styles in this area diverge profoundly at this stage, with some parents they choose to become heavily involved in arranging organized activities and early learning programs. Other parents choose to allow the kid develop with few organized activities.

Children begin to learn responsibility and consequences for their actions with parental help. Some parents provide a minor allowance that increases with age to assist teach children the value of money and how to be responsible.

Parents who are consistent and off-white with their discipline, who openly communicate and offering explanations to their children, and who do not neglect the needs of their children in any manner oftentimes find they have fewer bug with their children every bit they mature.

When child deport problems are encountered, behavioral and cerebral-behavioral group-based parenting interventions have been found to be effective at improving child deport, parenting skills, and parental mental health.[74]

Adolescents [edit]

Parents often feel isolated and alone when parenting adolescents.[75] Adolescence tin be a time of high gamble for children, where newfound freedoms can upshot in decisions that drastically open upward or close off life opportunities. At that place are also large changes that occur in the brain during adolescence; the emotional eye of the brain is now fully adult, but the rational frontal cortex hasn't matured fully and still is not able to keep all of those emotions in check.[76] Adolescents tend to increase the amount of time spent with peers of the opposite gender; however, they still maintain the amount of time spent with those of the aforementioned gender—and do this by decreasing the amount of time spent with their parents.

Although adolescents look to peers and adults exterior the family for guidance and models for how to comport, parents can remain influential in their development. Studies have shown that parents can accept a pregnant impact, for instance, on how much teens drink.[77]

During adolescence children brainstorm to form their identity and start to test and develop the interpersonal and occupational roles that they volition assume as adults. Therefore, it is of import that parents care for them as young adults. Parental bug at this stage of parenting include dealing with rebelliousness related to a greater desire to partake in risky behaviors. In guild to forbid risky behaviors, it is important for the parents to build a trusting relationship with their children. This tin be accomplished through behavioral control, parental monitoring, consistent discipline, parental warmth and support, inductive reasoning, and strong parent-kid communication.[78] [79]

When a trusting relationship is built up, adolescents are more than probable to arroyo their parents for help when faced with negative peer force per unit area. Helping children build a strong foundation will ultimately aid them resist negative peer pressure.[ citation needed ]

Adults [edit]

Parenting does non usually end when a child turns xviii. Support may be needed in a child'south life well across the boyish years and tin can continue into center and later adulthood. Parenting can be a lifelong process.

Parents may provide financial support to their adult children, which tin also include providing an inheritance subsequently decease. The life perspective and wisdom given past a parent tin do good their adult children in their ain lives. Becoming a grandparent is another milestone and has many similarities with parenting.

Roles tin can be reversed in some ways when adult children go caregivers to their elderly parents.[fourscore]

Assistance [edit]

Parents may receive aid with caring for their children through child care programs.

Childbearing and happiness [edit]

Data from the British Household Panel Survey and the German language Socio-Economical Panel suggests that having up to two children increases happiness in the years around the birth, and mostly merely for those who have postponed childbearing. Even so, having a third child is not shown to increment happiness.[81]

See also [edit]

  • Child custody
  • Childlessness
  • Developmental psychology
  • Empty nest syndrome
  • Family police
  • LGBT parenting
  • Motherhood constellation
  • Outline of children
  • Parent Rescue (documentary serial)
  • Parental breach
  • Parenting plan
  • Parental supervision
  • Parenting coordinator
  • Paternal age effect
  • Paternal intendance
  • Pedagogy
  • Shared parenting
  • Sharenting

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Robert Levine; Sarah Levine (2017). Practice Parents Matter?: Why Japanese Babies Sleep Soundly, Mexican Siblings Don't Fight & Parents Should Just Relax. Gift Press. ISBN978-0285643703.

External links [edit]

peterhime1950.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenting

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